Mr. What is often referred to as Marxism-Leninism rejects participatory democracy in favor of a disciplined, vanguard party in which democracy is practiced only in the central leadership organs of the party. This resulted in the widespread popularity of the ideas of Pan-Africanists from America, Europe, and the Caribbean, such as George Padmore and W.E.B. Dubois and the proponents of the concept of Ngritude as espoused by Leopold Senghor of Senegal and Aim Csaire of Martinique. Radu, Michael, and Arthur Jay Klinghoffer. In truth, though, it marked a turning point the end of direct actions by western powers in Africa, replaced by conflicts that spread across the continent as the west and the Soviet Union tussled for influence in newly or soon-to-be independent African nations: a proxy Cold War described as a second scramble for Africa. (1985). October 02 1958 October 02 The Cold War comes to Africa, as Guinea gains its independence The former French colony of Guinea declares its independence on October 2, 1958, with Sekou Toure as. The action by Britain and France, following Nassers nationalisation of the Suez Canal in July, was ostensibly launched to halt fighting between Egypt and Israel, which had invaded the Sinai Peninsula a week earlier. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. He emphasised that these links placed a burden of debt upon Cubans that they were duty-bound to repay., young members of guerrilla movements such as, Jean Luc Godard went to Maputo at the request of FRELIMO during this time as well. They had tried to achieve their goals of majority rule through peaceful means and failed. We were given two uniforms, one for classes and one for working in the fields, Mixinge recalls. The authors contend that, in practice, the aspiring ideology did not provide a clear strategy for social transformation after colonialism. It was waged mainly on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and lasted until 1991. Moreover and this was a growing source of anxiety for Washington Britain and France no longer enjoyed their former prestige in Africa, and their efforts to cling on there imperilled American interests. If African movements and parties after independence allied themselves with the United States, China, or the Soviet Union, they were labeled as either capitalist or communist (Young 1982, Idahosa 2004, Rosberg and Callaghy 1979, Friedland and Rosberg 1964). Africa: Problems in the Transition to Socialism. Newly independent nations such as Angola, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) provided the stages for some of the most bloody proxy battles between East and West, as the United States, apartheid-era South Africa and China tried to prevent the spread of communism in the global south, while Cuba and the Eastern Bloc sought to support it. Without Soviet and Cuban weaponry, and without Cubas 50,000 troops, the MPLA would almost certainly not have beaten UNITA and the South African Defence Force at the battle of Cuito Cuanavale, in 1988. AfricaSoviet Union relations covers the diplomatic, political, military, and cultural relationships between the Soviet Union and Africa from the 1945 to 1991. During the Cold War For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. By 1980, then, South Africa ruled by what Castro called a Fascist-Racist regime stood alone against the forces of African nationalism. [15] During 1956-1986, as part of the long South African Border War (1966-1990), the Soviets supplied and trained combat units from Namibia (SWAPO) and Angola (MPLA) at the African National Congress (ANC) military training camps in Tanzania. But Nasser was an ideal ally in Khrushchevs new policy of challenging the west in Africa. Once these movements assumed power, they were termed Afro-Marxist regimes (Ottaway and Ottaway 1986, Keller and Rothchild 1987, Munslow 1986). Castro growled about betrayal, but acquiesced. Also, socialism is not practiced exclusively in one type of political system. Although the communist ideas and arguments of such European theorists as Marx and Engels have been around since just before the turn of the 20th century, they have never been widespread in Africa. In 1975, when the Portuguese made a clumsy exit from Angola, the MPLA was already embroiled in a war against two rival movements (the FNLA and UNITA), funded by the CIA, Zaire (now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo), and the South African apartheid regime none of whom were keen to see an African, Marxist party take power in oil-rich Angola. In the early 1960s the KGB cultivated Kwame Nkrumah, charismatic first prime minister then president of independent Ghana, only to discover (by breaking Ghanaian wireless codes) that he and his cronies were squirrelling away Soviet subsidies. Indeed the Kremlin at first assumed that the Russian model of socialized development would prove attractive to Africans eager to modernize. Expand or collapse the "in this article" section, The Congo (Now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), 19601965, War in the Portuguese Colonies, 19611975, European Communist Countries Other Than the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, Art, Art History, and the Study of Africa, British Colonial Rule in Sub-Saharan Africa, Communism, Marxist-Leninism, and Socialism in Africa, Development of Early Farming and Pastoralism, Early States And State Formation In Africa, Eastern Africa and the South Asian Diaspora, Great Lakes States of Eastern Africa, The, Health, Medicine, and the Study of Africa, Historiography and Methods of African History, Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades, Kongo and the Coastal States of West Central Africa. Although some countries, such as Angola and Ethiopia, became allies for a while, the connections proved temporary. same time he systematically stripped his country of its wealth and resources. LGBTI Minorities and Queer Politics in Eastern and Souther Maasai and Maa-Speaking Peoples of East Africa, The, Modern African Literature in European Languages, Northeastern African States, c. 1000 BCE-1800 CE, Political Science and the Study of Africa, Postcolonial Sub-Saharan African Politics, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Africa, Social and Cultural Anthropology and the Study of Africa, States of the Zimbabwe Plateau and Zambezi Valley, Swahili City-States of the East African Coast. termed the "Cold War" but is, in reality, a war in which, in Africa, much heat is engendered. Weaver, Harold. [30] In this context, King Hassan II of Morocco said in 1980 that Morocco and the Soviet Union are "at war". The years following the Second World War saw European empires lose their grasp on Africa. On the other hand, both ideology and realpolitik led the Soviet Union to support those who fought for independence. Friedland, William H., and Carl G. Rosberg Jr., eds. The pattern was set for the next 30 years of proxy rivalry in Africa. Young, Crawford. The article is particularly useful in understanding the history of Communist parties and movements throughout Africa. [23], Soviet foreign policy in Somalia and Ethiopia was based on the Horn of Africa's strategic location for international trade and shipping as well as its military importance. At another level the anti-capitalist, socialist outlook at the heart of The first such confrontation occurred in the former . But the crisis also hardened the Soviets determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years. Britain was anxious that power in Africa was handed to dependable politicians. Communism is a particular form of socialism. Not only did Moscow oppose colonialism in principle, but the insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends. Cold War These were seen as values that were common in African traditions. In 1977 the Soviets attempted to unseat Neto, whom they now distrusted. It is argued that populist thinkers Nyerere, Cabral, and Fanon shared a common passion for a brand of socialism that was democratic and rooted in precolonial traditions as well as in Marxist-Leninist theory. He was overthrown by his defense minister Houari Boumdine, who was in charge 1965-1976. It exposes the shortcomings of so-called African socialism in practice. * Benin * * After Mathieu Kerekou who was a military Commander overthrew the government, Benin became a communist state. The Kremlin supported Gizenga, but did not want to take the international risks involved in delivering material aid to the blockaded Orientale Province. Britain and France, in particular, had taken pride in the belief that their rule was benevolent and progressive, and that at some unspecified date in the future their colonies would achieve independence. Until the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union showed very little interest in Africa. This coup de main misfired. But could they deliver a golden age for their followers? [1] It did not appear right for revolution because it was almost entirely controlled by European imperial powers, with the peasantry under the political control of tribal leaders, and low levels of proletarian consciousness in the small working-class. There, everyone was equal! It was left to the last leader of a communist Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, to disengage from Africa. former adversaries of the MPLA mainly the USA and China have become the most important trading partners, as Christabelle Peters points out. Why was the Cuban missile crisis such an important event in the Cold War? Throughout the ferocious Algerian War of Independence in the 1950s, Moscow provided military, technical and material assistance to the FLN, and trained hundreds of its military leaders in the USSR. After South Africa became a republic in 1961 and was expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations, relations were very cold. The level of ideological commitment or interest in socialist doctrine varied among all the different governments and movements which received Soviet military aid. Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II, the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. The United States therefore welcomed the rule of General Ibrahim Abboud, who had in November 1958 seized power in recently independent Sudan, bordering Egypt to the south. From the 1960s, cinema was one of the most important aspects of the alliances between Cuba, the USSR and African liberation movements. "The Soviet Union in the Third World: Purpose in Search of Power.". Now they had to contemplate using violent means. Updates? Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964. Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, 1979. SUPPORT FROM WEST The unity in the communist bloc was unraveling throughout the 1960s and 70s as a split occurred between China and the Soviet Union. Available online by subscription. Socialism in Sub-Sahara Africa: A New Assessment. Second it wanted to gain a voice in African affairs, primarily by supporting local communist parties, and providing economic and military aid to the governments. Furthermore, the British and French publics were increasingly grumbling that maintaining their African colonies was too costly: repression was expensive. By 1948 Soviet-sponsored and -directed communists had consolidated their control of the governments of eastern and central Europe and suppressed all noncommunist political activity. In the late 1970s, Cold War confrontations really flared in southern Africa, but also picked up steam in the Americas. Their thought also considered the critical need to control capital without being exploited by it. By 1975, some 36,000 Cuban reservists with artillery, tanks and missile systems were serving in Angola, while Cuban doctors, teachers and technicians replaced their Portuguese counterparts who had returned home. Two small countries deserve pride of place: Cuba, which sent tens of thousands of soldiers to southern Africa, and Sweden, which gave vital economic assistance to African liberation movements. Had the West offered assistance, there would have been much less need to look to Moscow. ", Piero Gleijeses, "Cuba's first venture in Africa: Algeria, 19611965. Thus, the superpowers were very much responsible for the emergence of communist orientations in some African nationalist movements. Inevitably, South Africa was drawn into the conflict, because Cubans were using Angolan bases to train guerrilla units. [5] In the early 1960s the KGB and the GRU began focusing more intelligence operations on Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Now they had to contemplate using violent means.Aside from military aid, the Soviet Union also offered a number of educational scholarships to young people, mainly in the former English and Portuguese territories.But the Soviet Union gave little in the way of aid or trade. But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War. But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War.After 1945, Africa became caught up in the confrontation between America and the Soviet Union, the so-called Cold War. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. Perhaps the most influential anticolonial thinker of the time was Frantz Fanon, a professional psychiatrist and philosopher. Krim Belkacem, who served in the French army and was later a partisan leader and a minister in the provisional Algerian government before independence, spoke for many veterans when he declared: My brother returned from Europe with medals and frostbitten feet! Its activists joined the militant National Liberation Front (FLN). Key words: Africa, Cold War, colonialism, USA, USSR, foreign policy, poli tics South African white politicians routinely denounced the ANC as a devious communist plot to overthrow the government. End of the World War II. The Cold War in Africa had ended. That change was, they suggested, to be achieved over 40 or so years; impatient African nationalist politicians accused them of procrastination. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. London: Zed, 1986. The success of International Communism in gaining nine stooge states in Africa by the beginning of 1967 is near spectacular if two factors are borne in mind. the revolution in 1974. declared a Marxist Leninist state in 1974, under Mathieu Kerekou. Such leaders had come to power at the head of disciplined parties, practised the arts of messianic leadership, and fostered popular optimism. Anti-Communism informed almost every aspect of the South African government's foreign policy and much of its domestic policy. You can unsubscribe at any time. The subsequent . In 1986 Mikhail Gorbachev rejected the idea of a revolutionary takeover of the South African government, and advocated a negotiated settlement. Paris sold Algeria French warplanes in 1968, looking to counterbalance the Soviet influence. He did not return for 14 years. Welcome to Foreign Policy 's China Brief. The internecine conflicts within Mozambique, Angola and the DRC, which had been stoked by Cold War powers, were now gathering a momentum of their own. The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc, the Socialist Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed during the Cold War (1947-1991). Above all, it is the USA that most profits from the war. Khrushchev said it was a three-way contest, the third pole being bourgeois nationalist movements that were inherently anti-imperialist and were demanding decolonization across the globe. For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (196475) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule (see Vietnam War). The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. Afterwards, US secretary of state John Foster Dulles concluded that it was now imperative for America to fill the vacuum of power which the British filled for a century. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. The level of ideological commitment or interest in socialist doctrine varied among all the different governments and movements which received Soviet military aid. Without France, what would you be or do? This was the view of many French people, and of many of the 700,000 European settlers (colons) in Algeria who enjoyed the advantages of French citizenship. [3], After 1953, the continent underwent a rapid process of decolonization, whereby nearly all the colonies became independent nations. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004. "Soviet training and research programs for Africa." The defeat fatally undermined the apartheid regime, and Nelson Mandela would declare: We are deeply indebted to the Cuban people for the selfless contribution they made to the anti-colonial and anti-apartheid struggle in our region we will never forget those who stood by us in the darkest years of our struggle against apartheid.. African elites who were exposed to socialist ideas either in the workplace or through the writings of theorists such as Karl Marx and V.I. Lenin and were attracted by the notions of social equality, mutual respect, and the sharing of labor. March 30, 1946. The Cold War was an ongoing political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II. [11], By the 1960s both the Soviets and the Chinese were angling for Algerian attention. The Cold War can be seen as the period, from 1945 to 1991, of intense struggle for ideological supremacy between capitalist forces led by the USA and the forces of communism spearheaded by the USSR. AFRICAN For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here. The Kremlin thought Castro's adventurism was dangerous but it was unable to stop him. Fidel Castro sent 300,000 Cuban troops to Africa to support fellow revolutionaries against Western imperialism. under Mengistu Haile Mariam, following Please select which sections you would like to print: Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. In 1986 Gorbachev rejected the idea of a revolutionary takeover of the South African government, and advocated a negotiated settlement. United States intervention in Angola was heavily shaped by several factors. The Kremlin promptly sent military advisors and munitions. under Siad Barre. Washington feared that the metropoles intransigence would open the door to Soviet meddling. [25] It proclaimed Marxism-Leninism as its official ideology and became a close ally of Moscow. Its founder Vladimir Lenin did argue in his famous book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism that imperialism was inherently caused by capitalism, and the inaugural session of the Comintern in 1919 included a declaration of solidarity for "the colonial slaves of Africa and Asia." But Africa was left, traumatised, to pick up the pieces and face the problems created by the corrupt dictatorships that were the Cold Wars lasting legacy. Under the glare of international public opinion, colonial rule could be justified only through economic aid to uplift the natives, and this would add to the financial burden on the metropoles. Both superpowers had been wooing Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser first the US, which offered then withdrew financial support for the construction of an Aswan dam, then the Soviet Union, which sold Egypt large quantities of arms. Still, India was the largest and most vocal Third World country not embedded in the emerging Cold War alliance structure, with Nehru the champion of anti-imperialism and neutralism (Barnes, 2013b . US and Soviet intelligence agencies played kingmakers, financing and overseeing coups to install biddable rulers. Since most nations in Europe, Latin America, and Asia had already chosen sides, Kennedy and Krushchev both looked to Africa as the next Cold War battleground. Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics. ", Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University, Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA), "Mubarak set for talks at Kremlin on nuclear and arms trade", William E. Farrell, "Envoy of Moscow Expelled by Egypt". by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the ", Harry Brind, "Soviet policy in the Horn of Africa. 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