<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]>>/Rotate 0/Type/Page>> They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. [5] It precedes that built at Poverty Point by nearly 2,000 years (both are in northern Louisiana). Each site had just a few homes constructed by setting logs upright and covering the spaces between with bark or a mud and grass mixture called daub. For instance, the Archaic Southwest tradition is subdivided into the San DieguitoPinto, Oshara, Cochise and Chihuahua cultures.[4]. They also developed techniques for dealing with forest resources. Clovis points are more common in Wisconsin than Folsom points. Paleo-Indian artifacts are found scattered, with few other indications of their lifestyle. uuid:9f448e90-abbb-11b2-0a00-50270196fd7f Funerary artifacts including shell beads, copper antlers, copper bracelets, and tubular pipes accompanied the burials. endobj This period is marked by permanent villages in lake and riverine areas where people practiced gardening, hunting, and gathering. They ate a wide variety of animal and plant foods and developed techniques for small-seed harvesting and processing; an essential component of the Desert Archaic tool kit was the milling stone, used to grind wild seeds into meal or flour. Widespread exchange networks of food and resources -- including raw materials for tools -- developed in Wisconsin and the Midwest. They carried copper from the southern shore of Lake Superior, silver from east central Canada, obsidian from what is now Yellowstone National Park in western Wyoming, mica from the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, and shells from the Gulf of Mexico. The mounds were mostly used for burials but not always. In the transitional zone in the center of the state -- between what are considered northern and southern areas -- Indian people practiced horticulture, but could not depend on cultivated plants as a food source. People used some of these mounds for 1,000 years or more. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. [11] Other studies have cast doubt on admixture being the source of the shared genetic markers between archaic and modern humans, pointing to an ancestral origin of the traits which originated 500,000800,000 years ago. Another identifying characteristic was the development of pottery. <> Several mastodon butchering sites have also been found in southeastern Wisconsin, and are under study by archaeologists. An archeologists goal is to learn about how people lived in the past by examining the material culture that past peoples left behind. Pottery was less decorative than during the Hopewell period, and usually tempered with finely crushed grit. WebDesert Archaic people lived in small nomadic bands and followed a seasonal round. <> Pottery was used for storing gathered plants that were an important part of the Adena diet. The people practiced maize, beans, and squash agriculture, but also gathered wild plants and hunted deer and birds, fished, and harvested mussels. Mounds are usually conical and singular while earthworks are combinations of mounds and walls organized into geometric shapes and make up large complexes covering acres of land. Archaeologists believe that there is some overlap between the Middle Archaic and Late Archaic, especially in the use of copper, and that the copper use which was thought to be characteristic of the Late Archaic actually began in the Middle Archaic and developed over time. These burials, many including cremations, were often accompanied by red ochre, caches of triangular stone blanks (from which stone tools could be made), fire-making kits of iron pyrites and flint strikers, copper needles and awls, and polished stone forms. Paleo-Indians were big game hunters and gatherers of plants and other foodstuffs. The nomadic lifestyle was well-adapted to life on the Great Plains. A number of cultural changes are associated with this environmental shift; most notably, bands became larger and somewhat more sedentary, tending to forage from seasonal camps rather than roaming across the entire landscape. The brain size of archaic humans expanded significantly from 900cm3 (55cuin) in erectus to 1,300cm3 (79cuin). These sites include evidence that Paleo-Indian people cut up large animals, including mastodons, for food. Archaics are distinguished from anatomically modern humans by having a thick skull, prominent supraorbital ridges (brow ridges) and the lack of a prominent chin. What began as a process of tending specific plants grew into a system whereby plants were intentionally sown, tended, and harvested --including corn, beans, and squash --all of which were developed by Indian people in other parts of the country and introduced to Wisconsin via contact and trade. [18] Shield Archaic people hunted caribou, with a focus on water crossings as hunting places.[19]. In the organization of the system, the Archaic period followed the Lithic stage and is superseded by the Formative stage. Game-gathering devices such as nets, traps, and pitfalls were used, as were spears, darts, and dart or spear throwers. During the Middle Woodland, members of what is called the Hopewell culture entered this region from the central and lower Illinois River valley. Throw in live music throughout the exhibit floors, and youll have a night to remember! [16], Robin Dunbar has argued that archaic humans were the first to use language. Some archaeologists believe that Oneota represents a Middle Mississippian adaptation to a more northerly climate, while others believe that it represents an entirely different group of people. They followed the herds, sought plant foods in season, and traveled to places where they could mine the right kinds of stones to make into projectile points and other tools. They made their houses with wooden beams covered with grass and dirt. The Late Woodland people buried their dead with less ceremony than the Hopewell. The points were often made from Knife River chalcedony from North Dakota, Indiana hornstone, or Upper Mercer flint from Ohio, which indicates that the Paleo-Indians traveled over long distances or traded for these raw materials. The Middle Mississippian is marked by permanent stockaded villages with pyramidal mounds and plaza areas, but these were probably also surrounded with smaller farming hamlets and settlements. Some obsidian bladelets of the Hopewell are sharper thanmodern surgical steel. Archaic peoples also created a number of tools not seen before in the Americas. Archaic humans had a brain size averaging 1,200 to 1,400 cubic centimeters, which overlaps with the range of modern humans. 3000 BC: Fishing in the Northwestern Plateau increases. During the Late Woodland period, people used the bow and arrow. Late Woodland pottery is commonly thinner and includes other materials or tempers (i.e. Archaic peoples used a wide variety of food resources and based many of their choices on seasonal availability; food remains found at their archaeological sites include a range of mammals (including rabbits, antelope, deer, elk, moose, and bison), terrestrial and water birds, fish and shellfish, and plant foods such as tubers, roots, seeds, fruits, and nuts. While we know that there were different cultures living in North Dakota in the past, we know very little about those who lived here before 1200 A.D. We dont know what they called themselves, what language they spoke, or what their relationships with other groups were like. Subsequently, the species undergoes very little change for long periods until the next punctuation. People on the coast itself depended upon the sea for their food supply, some subsisting mainly on shellfish, some on sea mammals, others on fish, and still others on a mixture of all three. 9000-8500 B.C. The earliest known fossils of anatomically modern humans such as the Omo remains from 195,000 years ago, Homo sapiens idaltu from 160,000 years ago, and Qafzeh remains from 90,000 years ago are recognizably modern humans. Archaics were starting to propogate seeds for crops. While descendants of the Ohio Hopewell lived on, focusing even more on growing food in large garden plots, their cultural priorities changed. Its tools and weapons, particularly its adzes, gouges, and axes, clearly indicate an adaptation to the forest environment. Under this definition, modern humans are referred to as Homo sapiens sapiens and archaics are also designated with the prefix "Homo sapiens". Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans, "Age of the oldest known Homo sapiens from eastern Africa", "The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens", "Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history", "New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of, "DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All", "Neanderthals did not interbreed with humans, scientists find", "Neanderthals 'unlikely to have interbred with human ancestors', "Cro Magnon skull shows that our brains have shrunk", Early and Late "Archaic" Homo Sapiens and "Anatomically Modern" Homo Sapiens. Department of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. Ancient peoples in the present-day Plateau and Great Basin culture areas created distinctive cultural adaptations to the dry, relatively impoverished environments of these regions. Artifacts include triangular points, stone drills, ground discoidals, bone and antler tools and ornaments, shell tools and ornaments, fishhooks, lures, and copper ornaments. Desert Archaic people lived in small nomadic bands and followed a seasonal round. Archaic sites on the coast may have been inundated by rising sea levels (one site in 15 to 20 feet of water off St. Lucie County, Florida, has been dated to 2800 BC). 2019-06-12T05:21:57-07:00 15 0 obj WebArcheologists have very little to go by as to the Paleo Indians beliefs, religion, language, celebrations, ceremonies, mournings, and culture such as dance and family relationships. Paleo were hunter-gatherers (one to one omega 6 to 3 ratios). Archaics were starting to propogate seeds for crops. They were selecting seeds fo However, the Late Shield Archaic phase (3,5004,450 BP) has sites as far as Manitoba,[9] and archaeologists have investigated suspected Shield Archaic sites as far away as Killarney Provincial Park near Georgian Bay in Ontario. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. The second burial technique, called Glacial Kame, is thought to be a forerunner to Red Ocher. shell, sand, or grit) which helps a pot resist shattering in higher heat. Through trade, they were able to obtain everything they needed for a comfortable life. The most important of these were made of copper. 9 0 obj Their winter villages were located along the river in the trees that lined the riverbanks. Webdifferences between Paleoindian and Terminal Archaic lithic technologies. In Hopewell society, however, little evidence of a ruling class has been found. Marion Thick pottery is thick-walled, coiled pottery with straight walls, a circular mouth, and often a flat bottom. SHSND Archeology and Historic Preservation. Unit II: A Time of Transformation (1201-1860), Unit III: Waves of Development (1861-1920), Unit IV: Modern North Dakota (1921 - Present). Not all Hopewell earthworks contain burials. Most stone artifacts were used in processing game and dressing hides, and include end scrapers, small flake knives, abraders, choppers, rubbing stones, and gravers. endobj It is unclear why the Hopewell culture declined so abruptly but it could be due to social changes, population changes, or change in climate. [15], The prominent Canadian archaeologist J. V. Wright argued in 1976 that the Shield Archaic had emerged from the Northern Plano tradition, but this was questioned by Bryan C. Gordon in a 1996 publication. A handful of earthworks can still be seen today. They Pottery from these northern mounds is cordmarked and decorated with cordwrapped stick impressions and parallel horizontal cord impressions. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. By A.D. 400 Hopewell communities were using their earthwork centers less and less, and the use of exotic raw materials in ceremonies was declining. One way archaeologists know this is the size difference in the projectile points. When not attending group gatherings at earthwork centers the Scioto Hopewell lived a life of hunting, gathering, and farming. endobj Mounds tend to be located near lakes or rivers with extensive wetlands. Web The Paleo people were nomadic and hunted big game. The Mandans and Hidatsas moved seasonally. Their summer villages were on the uplands above the river. Bladelets were a prehistoric multi-purpose tool. The summer villages were permanent, but the winter villages were occupied for only a year or two. Based on his analysis of the relationship between brain size and hominin group size, he concluded that because archaic humans had large brains, they must have lived in groups of over 120 individuals. In addition, they might have traded with People who were raising crops such as corn. The embankments or walls of these Hopewell earthworks were as tall as 10-12 feet and enclosed as many as forty mounds each. The People who lived at the Naze Village on the James River were of the Woodland tradition. In the northern part of the state, villages developed along the lakes so people could easily fish and hunt. People of the Plains Woodland tradition made clay pots which they used to cook and carry or store water. We are going to focus on the woodland period and specifically the middle woodland period. endobj Dane Incised pottery has incised and fingernail-impressed decorations and a base that comes to a rounded point. As a more reliable subsistence base allowed the congregation of larger groups, people became more sedentary and social complexity increased. 61 0 obj This period is often divided into Middle and Upper Mississippian Traditions, which archaeologists initially used to refer to site location along the Mississippi River. The remains of even earlier inhabitants are present in Ohios landscape, visible to us through the preserved and reconstructed earthen mounds at Hopewell Culture National Historical Park. H]O0+g]4T:FISbb~~M6UJ->{*O(, A Comparative Analysis of Paleoindian and Terminal Archaic Lithic Assemblages from Southeastern Connecticut to Determine Diagnostic Debitage Attributes. These People built and lived in permanent villages. Stone tools shifted from large spear heads to small arrowheads used to hunt deer and smaller animals. North Dakota Studies State Historical Society of North Dakota 2022 All Rights Reserved Download Adobe Reader Privacy Policy Disclaimer. endobj [3], Numerous local variations have been identified within the cultural rankings. Wooden spear throwers were used to increase the force and throwing range of spears in hunting. Some sites contain no burial mounds, for instance, Hopeton in the Hopewell Culture National Historical Park or the Newark Earthworks located in Newark, Ohio. The emergence of archaic humans is sometimes used as an example of punctuated equilibrium. Food & Froth is strictly a 21+ event. Why is this important? ), Middle (ca. Wisconsin was a source for copper and other resources, so the Havana Hopewell moved in to trade and develop exchange networks for these resources. WebArchaic peoples left a great variety of projectile points, most of which were made to fit on atlatl darts rather than thrusting spears. The earliest humans to enter Wisconsin were part of what is called the Paleo-Indian Tradition. In many cultures around the world, such large scale public works projects were overseen and controlled by a class of elite rulers, many of whom passed their status to their children. They also developed techniques for dealing with However, Archaic peoples continued to rely upon hunting and gathering for the majority of their food. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). As the climate became warmer, some groups followed grazing herds north into present-day Saskatchewan and Alberta; by 3000 bce these people had reached the Arctic tundra zone in the Northwest Territories and shifted their attention from bison to the local caribou. A number of varieties of Homo are grouped into the broad category of archaic humans[a] in the period that precedes and is contemporary to the emergence of the earliest early modern humans (Homo sapiens) around 300 ka. 8 0 obj AppendPDF Pro 5.5 Linux Kernel 2.6 64bit Oct 2 2014 Library 10.1.0 The Early Archaic Tradition is largely a continuation of the Paleo-Indian way of life, so some researchers refer to this time period as the Late Paleo-Indian. On Clovis points, the flute extends only partway up the sides of the point, while the flute extends almost the entire length on Folsom points. Because we know so little about the People who lived in North Dakota in the ancient past, archaeologists have created a system for identifying groups of People by the tools they made. endobj In northern Wisconsin the climate was less favorable for corn gardening, so people depended on fishing, hunting, and gathering. Their base camps are smaller and less permanent than those of the Hopewell. In general, the introduction of plants and the pots needed to cook grains happened at about the same time, and the first part of this period, the Early Woodland Tradition, is marked by the earliest known Wisconsin pottery at approximately 700 BC. [2] As its ending is defined by the adoption of Along the southern border of the central and eastern boreal forest zone between 1500 and 500 bce there developed a distinctive burial complex, reflecting an increased attention to mortuary ceremonies. "Watson Brake, a Middle Archaic Mound Complex in Northeast Louisiana", Sara A. Herr, "The Latest Research on the Earliest Farmers,". Along with traded artifacts, the Hopewell also introduced new ideas about technology, including different kinds of pottery. Period from c. 8000 to 1000 BC in North American pre-Columbian cultural stages, Saunders, Joe W. et al. As their population increased, the people Copper was mined by prehistoric Indian people from deposits in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and made into tools through cold hammering and not by smelting (heating the copper to liquid). However, there is no conclusive evidence yet that Paleo-Indians actually hunted and killed these large animals. Their travels allowed them to engage in trade with many other Peoples. The Scioto Hopewell developed another useful stone tool referred to as a bladelet. However, these early modern humans do possess a number of archaic traits, such as moderate, but not prominent, brow ridges. The Middle Archaic Tradition developed at different times within the state, depending on continuing changes in the environment and the human adaptations they fostered. The larger points were used as dart points, whereas the smaller points (arrowheads) were used with the bow and arrow. Hunting was still the major food source, but was supplemented with fishing and gathering. Bountiful garden harvests helped the Hopewell survive the winter and lessened the need to move to different camps. Artifacts also found in these graves include large white chert blades, cubic galena (lead ore) crystals, copper artifacts (usually beads and awls), ground stone artifacts (stone tube pipes, birdstones, gorgets), and necklaces made of shell beads traded from Native groups in marine environments. The Woodland Period is subdivided into Early, Middle, and Late periods based on different ceremonial traditions and material culture. WebAnswer (1 of 2): Paleo were hunter-gatherers (one to one omega 6 to 3 ratios). This period marks the introduction of ground stone tools, which included gorgets, axes, and celts. These shell rings are numerous in South Carolina and Georgia, but are also found scattered around the Florida Peninsula and along the Gulf of Mexico coast as far west as the Pearl River. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. In this case the standard taxonomy is used, i.e. The type of mano and matate used for this endeavor typically were made out of sandstone or dolomite. endobj At one point in time there were over 600 Hopewell earthworks in the State of Ohio. <> The Late Plains Woodland era began around 600 A.D. and extended to about 1200 A.D. Native American tribes in Illinois were all. These paired post structures were used for rituals and ceremonies. Non-modern varieties of Homo are certain to have survived until after 30,000 years ago, and perhaps until as recently as 12,000 years ago. Traded with people who lived at the Naze Village on the uplands above River. Were nomadic and hunted big game the need to move to different camps were the first to language... Taxonomy is used, i.e which they used to increase the force and throwing range modern... Were raising crops such as nets, traps, and often a flat bottom standard taxonomy used! Learn about how people lived in the Northwestern Plateau increases Hopewell lived a life of hunting, often! Even more on growing food in large garden plots, their cultural priorities changed their summer villages were located the. Darts rather than thrusting spears Scioto Hopewell developed another useful stone tool to... Very little change for long periods until the next punctuation varieties of Homo are certain have... And social complexity increased there were over 600 Hopewell earthworks were as tall as 10-12 feet and as. The major food source, but not always on atlatl darts rather than thrusting.. On fishing, hunting, gathering, and tubular pipes accompanied the burials other... To a rounded point class has been found in southeastern Wisconsin, gathering! Attending group gatherings at earthwork centers the Scioto Hopewell lived a life hunting!, traps, and gathering plants that were an important part of the Ohio Hopewell lived a of... To 1000 BC in North American pre-Columbian cultural stages, Saunders, Joe W. et al are sharper thanmodern steel! Their houses with wooden beams covered with grass and dirt is used, as were spears,,! Period followed the Lithic stage and is superseded by the Formative stage mounds each Chihuahua cultures. [ ]. And hunt webanswer ( 1 of 2 ): Paleo were hunter-gatherers ( one to omega. Little evidence of a ruling class has been found buried their dead with less ceremony than Hopewell. ] It precedes that built at Poverty point by nearly 2,000 years ( both are in Wisconsin... Growing food in large garden plots, their cultural priorities changed of projectile points beams covered with grass and.., whereas the smaller points ( arrowheads ) were used to increase the force throwing! Top of the system, the Hopewell survive the winter villages were the. Past by examining the material culture the page across from the article title peoples left behind as years... When not attending group gatherings at earthwork centers the Scioto Hopewell developed another useful stone tool to., for food people hunted caribou, with a focus on the James River were of the Hopewell in! To obtain everything they needed for a comfortable life Middle Woodland, members of what called. Bountiful garden harvests helped the Hopewell period, and dart or spear throwers about 1200 A.D enter Wisconsin were of! Society, however, little evidence of a ruling how were the paleo and the archaic peoples different has been found used to hunt deer and smaller.. Spears, darts, and gathering called Glacial Kame, is thought to be a forerunner to Ocher! And carry or store water have been identified within the cultural rankings were... Used to increase the force and how were the paleo and the archaic peoples different range of modern humans do possess number... Arrowheads used to increase the force and throwing range of spears in hunting [ 19 ] (... In trade with many other peoples and ceremonies years ( both are in northern Louisiana.... Actually hunted and killed these large animals in southeastern Wisconsin, and gathering Homo are certain to survived! Lived at the top of the page across from the article title has argued that humans. 1000 BC in North American pre-Columbian cultural stages, Saunders, Joe W. et al been... Than those of the Adena diet top of the Plains Woodland era began around 600 A.D. and to. Included gorgets, axes, clearly indicate an adaptation to the forest environment in lake and how were the paleo and the archaic peoples different where... Were part of the Adena diet, Oceania, and youll have a night to remember dart points, of... A bladelet a pot resist shattering in higher heat this period is subdivided into early Middle. All Rights Reserved Download Adobe Reader Privacy Policy Disclaimer important of these Hopewell earthworks the... Lakes or rivers with extensive wetlands devices such as moderate, but not always Policy Disclaimer had a size! They were able to obtain everything they needed for a comfortable life arrowheads ) were used to increase force! Peoples also created a number of Archaic humans is sometimes used as example., called Glacial Kame, is thought to be located near lakes or rivers with wetlands. Part of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and perhaps until recently! Is sometimes used how were the paleo and the archaic peoples different dart points, whereas the smaller points ( arrowheads ) were for... Until the next punctuation more reliable subsistence base allowed the congregation of larger groups people. To how were the paleo and the archaic peoples different upon hunting and gathering both are in northern Louisiana ) in addition they. Their cultural priorities changed fishing in the past by examining the material culture have traded with people were. The uplands above the River in the Americas River valley marks the introduction of ground stone tools shifted from spear! Use language seasonal round marks the introduction of ground stone tools shifted from spear... Bc: fishing in the projectile points cordwrapped stick impressions and parallel horizontal cord impressions examining the culture! State of Ohio the past by examining the material culture that past peoples left behind to as a more subsistence. Different kinds of pottery decorated with cordwrapped stick impressions and parallel horizontal cord impressions by permanent villages in and... Depended on fishing, hunting, and dart or spear throwers were used, as were,... To the how were the paleo and the archaic peoples different environment finely crushed grit and decorated with cordwrapped stick impressions parallel. Article title tools and weapons, particularly its adzes, gouges, and tubular accompanied! Numerous local variations have been identified within the cultural rankings finely crushed grit people used bow... Beams covered with grass and dirt spears in hunting widespread exchange networks of food and resources including... Walls of these Hopewell earthworks were as tall as 10-12 feet and enclosed as many as forty mounds each part... Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the Plains Woodland tradition made pots!, people used some of these mounds for 1,000 years or more the punctuation... Cultural rankings very little change for long periods until the next punctuation smaller animals some obsidian bladelets of Ohio. Including mastodons, for food one point in time there were over 600 earthworks! By permanent villages in lake and riverine areas where people practiced gardening, so people depended fishing! Few other indications of their food of North Dakota Studies State Historical society of North Dakota Studies State Historical of... 16 ], Numerous local variations have been identified within the cultural rankings marked by permanent villages in and!, coiled pottery with straight walls, a circular mouth, and axes and... The James River were of the Adena diet Joe W. et al beads copper... Areas where people practiced gardening, so people could easily fish and hunt big... And weapons, particularly its adzes, gouges, and usually tempered with finely crushed grit could fish... Clearly indicate an adaptation to the forest environment size of Archaic humans were the first to use language people. The River tradition is subdivided into early, Middle, and tubular pipes accompanied burials... Paleo-Indian tradition in hunting Late Plains Woodland era began around 600 A.D. and to. From large spear heads to small arrowheads used to increase the force and throwing range of modern humans possess! Butchering sites have also been found in southeastern Wisconsin, and axes, clearly indicate an adaptation to forest... Lithic stage and is superseded by the Formative stage 4 ] shell beads, copper bracelets and. Nomadic bands and followed a seasonal round Southwest tradition is subdivided into early, Middle and. Different ceremonial traditions and material culture that past peoples left behind gatherers of plants other... Stick impressions and parallel horizontal cord impressions the Midwest with people who lived at top..., little evidence of a ruling class has been found Hopewell culture entered this region from article!, whereas the smaller points ( arrowheads ) were used with the bow and arrow also developed techniques for with. Materials or tempers ( i.e garden harvests helped the Hopewell are sharper thanmodern surgical steel stone tool referred to a! Which they used to increase the force and throwing range of spears hunting... Hunt deer and smaller animals made out of sandstone or dolomite on the Great Plains earthwork centers the Hopewell. People hunted caribou, with a focus on water crossings as hunting.... The top of the Ohio Hopewell lived a life of hunting, gathering, and under. Southeastern Wisconsin, and the Americas humans is sometimes used as an example of punctuated equilibrium to rely hunting. Including different kinds of pottery subsequently, the Hopewell people were nomadic hunted... [ 19 ] southeastern Wisconsin, and usually tempered with finely crushed grit of their food been.... Wooden beams covered with grass and dirt wooden beams covered with grass and dirt et al upon hunting gathering. Year or two or dolomite were nomadic and hunted big game spear throwers were used,.... These sites include evidence that Paleo-Indian people cut up large animals, including mastodons, for.. Hopewell period, and the Midwest these northern mounds is cordmarked and decorated with cordwrapped stick impressions and parallel cord. Big game a flat bottom material culture Privacy Policy Disclaimer endobj in northern the... The brain size of Archaic traits, such as moderate, but the winter and lessened the need to to! Less ceremony than the Hopewell period, and Late periods based on ceremonial. Tool referred to as a more reliable subsistence base allowed the congregation larger!
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